value of education

Values Education Program and Operational Mechanism for Strategic Educationists of the New Millennium

INTRODUCTION
 Man is a moral being, free to choose either good or evil, right or wrong. The basic questions are: “what is good? what is evil? why good is good? why evil is evil?”. These questions are the topic of ETHICS where “Laws according to which OUGHT to happen” are discussed. In this way ETHICS relates more to feelings than to the concrete world and incorporates instinctive behaviour; within the purview of Mechanistic Theory of Life it becomes hedonismic in nature, seeks pleasure and happiness and lurks onto selfishness paving way towards egoism, stoicism and mysticism and then from another aspect involves utility value in the theoretical garb of greatest good of the greatest number; when it corroborates to survival of the fittest under the Theory of Evolution, it emphasizes to adaptability to environment and includes evolutionary ethics; then moves onto naturalism or with slight change to humanism under the canopy of anthropology and sociology, projects mores and cores of society reflecting patterns of culture where success becomes the other name of ethics and then invariably involves the concept of expediency and then under the covering of intuitionism giving intrinsic potence it turns to conscience where one’s actions are accepted/approved on the basis of “a priori” having either subjective or objective school of thought in its focus, gives a  new concept framework of moral sense and leads towards conscience where conflicts pop up between reason v/s passions, emotions, instincts, drives, urges, feelings etc. and reason tends to be exhibited as a mere tool of desire engineered on emotion and then comes into play the terms like intellectual evil and moral good/evil and then finally through the concept of practical reason pops up the concept of values.
Values are those qualities that are regarded by a person or a group as important and desirable. The scale of values helps to determine which of the two goods is the higher and which the lower. Reason tells only about relative values. Ethics cannot even give a definite answer to the question as to whether there are absolute values and if so, how they can be known. It tends to define values in subjective terms, only in relation to the particular experiencing individual. It amounts to a tacit denial of an objective system of values, valid for all men at all times. Islam involves belief in objective, absolute values as moral standard. These values are given in the Holy Qur’an – the only source of our knowledge of the highest values on which the character development is based.
Armed with adequate knowledge of values, we can, if we want, give and act in full accord with the immutable moral order of the universe. The knowledge does not only consist in merely the recognition of a value as a value but involves a just estimate of the degree of worth possessed by it also, so that it may be compared with other values. Confronted with a situation where we are called upon to choose between two values, we can then promptly choose the higher and sacrifice the lower value for the sake of the higher. Character is strengthened by our voluntary sacrifice of a lower value to secure a higher one. When a man has to choose, for example, between life and money, he does not hesitate to throw away money and save his life. Here instinct backs his choice; but the same man may be forced to choose between life and honour. It is a cruel choice and the man may not reconcile himself to the loss of either of the two extremely precious things. Choosing the higher and sacrificing the lower value is the character development (Iqbal.1989).
National reconstruction and character development are intrinsically linked with Values Education whether these be through democratic values, through our system of education and curriculum at all levels: primary, secondary and tertiary.
According to the Holy Qur’an, the five principles, are the five fundamental facts which one has to accept in order to become a Momin:

1. Eiman in Allah
2. Eiman in the law of Mukafat (law of Requital) and the life hereafter
3. Eiman in Malaika, the heavenly forces
4. Eiman in the revealed Books
5. Eiman in the Ambia

 Where-as;
–        To have Eiman in Allah means to have conviction in His existence, to trust His every word, to depend/trust the laws given by Him and declare that one would obey those laws.
–        To have Eiman in the law of Mukafat means to have firm conviction in that law: the natural consequences of actions, and to have faith in the continuity of life after death.
–        To have Eiman in the existence of Mala'ika means to believe that all the heavenly forces are in operation in the universe to bring into reality the tasks/programs given to them by Allah and to have faith that all the heavenly forces have bowed before man or have been ordered to come within his reach, or man has been made capable of conquering them after doing research.
–        To have Eiman in Ambia means that man’s intellect alone cannot safely reach the destination – this guidance has been provided in "Wahi”, revelation, through the chosen people called Ambia and whatever the Creator and Sustainer of this universe wished to be given for the enrichment and growth of human personality were communicated in their most perfect form through Rasool-Allah Muhammad (peace be upon him).
At present man-made values are indirectly taught across the curriculum and directly as a subject of Islamiyat in the Muslim World. The uses of value-oriented contexts commonly occur in the teaching and learning of Languages. Social Studies and Science have components that either deal directly with such values or have components, which imbibe these values to be introduced spontaneously. Extra-curricular activities like clubs, societies, sports, games etc. too play roles in the inculcation of desirable behaviours in terms of interaction with one another. The school culture, referring to the total environment, physical and non-physical both, has an influence for embedding values in the moral fibre of the student cartel. But the studies during 90s bring this point to the view that the reason of moral degeneration in national life is: actions are motivated by material gains, while other values of life have been thrown overboard (Khattak, 1991). In one Study (1991) the parents and the teachers projected the view: the character development issue is choked with the fray fabric of the system of education in vogue . . . , (and) the type of religious education the pupils get, do not enable to harness the heavenly forces for the development of their personality (Bureau of Curriculum & Extension Wing Sindh, Pakistan, 1991). The result is that the educated youth does neither conform through their character to the expected norms nor to the humanitarian aspects of the prevalent educational enterprise. The major process of educational renovation for ideological orientations has remained secular in character all over the world and the concept of permanent values as embedded by our Holy Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) in the teaching learning process has not been imbibed in the curriculum process in Pakistan (Manzoor, 1993). This is only possible through a system of education based on the permanent values. Such a system has been symbolized as Values Education and demands a program to be chalked out and launched for the new generation.
This paper deals with the description of such a Values Education program in the Muslim World and puts forth the guidelines for the development of operational mechanism for strategic educationists of the year 2000 and beyond as a brave enterprise.
VALUES EDUCATION PROGRAM
Values act as a powerful leaven in the life of people – the life which today is fraught with conflict-and-dissension-ridden situation in which the hearts are stricken by the canker of greed, corruption and incompetence; and its remedy, under the existing conditions, is in noose; the more it tugs, the more it chokes. It is because no system of human organization that is false in its very principle, in its very foundations, can save itself by any amount of cleverness and efficiency in the means by which that falsehood is carried out and maintained by any amount of superficial adjustment and tinkering. Only and only the education based on permanent values can withstand the test of time. The broad objectives of this Values Education for the primary and secondary schools, to begin with, is the development of an individual who recognizes, accepts and internalizes his/her role as a responsible decision maker in accordance with these permanent values in a democratic society to the extent that his/her actions are governed within the boundary walls of these values.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CONTENTS OF VALUES EDUCATION PROGRAM: MODUS VIVENDI
The Curriculum for Values Education would consist of values drawn from the Holy Quran like the ones reflected through the Holy Prophet’s Quranic teaching process. The values would be essential to ensure the healthy interaction between the individual and his/her family, peers and society.
The reflection of these values through the student’s behaviour would be the end product of teaching-learning process and would be seen in the widening relationship being projected between his/her family, peers and school/university and this would ultimately be expanded to national and inter-national levels in the days of their lives to come.
For reinforcement, consolidation and inculcation, these values would be repeatedly taught at every level of teaching. Though the values taught would be the same, the scope and emphasis would differ according to the depth and complexity of the issues treated. The scope of discussion for every value would also widen to keep at par with the maturity level of the students.
These values would not be listed in any particular hierarchy of importance, but would be instilled in the personality of students suited to their genius during any lesson of the subject being studied. This would be necessary because the focus of Values Education would be based on the vicissitudes of their life during the teaching and learning process.
LIST OF PERMANENT VALUES
The following values would form the underpinning of the curricula of Values Education at various levels:
1.      Human Personality, the Divine Energy
-           Its development is the ultimate goal of life on this earth

1. Respect for the Human Beings

-           All human beings are equal by birth and are worthy of respect

1. Status according to the Actions

-           Criterion of respect is according to the man’s personal qualities

1. Justice

-           Equality to each human beings by virtue of his/her birth
-           Uniform opportunities for development of his/her potential
-           Status with respect to her/his actions
-           Reward corresponding to his/her efforts
-           Not suppressing what is due to him/her
-           Deciding all matters on all human beings, even to the enemy

1. Punishment

-           To the nature of crime committed

1. Personal Responsibility

-           Shoulder it first to claim for right (shouldering of responsibility accrues right alone)

1. Zulm

-           Wrong not and not be wronged

1. Ehsan

-           Maintain proportion among the disproportioned as a matter of right

1. Freedom

-           Maintain freedom for every individual and pay respect to freedom
10.  Subservience
-           To Allah’s revealed laws alone
11.  Law of Requital (Law of Mukafat)
-           Establishment of Natural Consequences of Actions, overt or covert
12.  Social Justice
-           Not confounding truth with falsehood
-           Nor knowingly conceal the truth what-so-ever be the reason: favouritism, greed, envy, enmity, victimization, self-interest.
-           Not hiding testimony
-           Not pleading the cause of the perfidious, the dishonest, the distrust or the treacherous.
13.  Obey and Ordain to Obey the Recognized Laws for the Establishment of Society
-           Enjoin right conduct and forbid indecency for the establishment of a society
14.  Avoid Anarchy, Rebelliousness and Lawlessness as Defined in the Holy Qur’an
15.  Permanent Values as a Boundary line for Human Actions
-           Be within the boundaries of the permanent values and consult others for deciding partial matters
16.  Render back the Trusts
-           Trust to those alone who deserve and never to the undeserved
17.  Subsistence
-           Keep the sources of production open to the benefit of the humanity as a whole
18.  Intellectual and Physiological Nourishment of Others Strengths One’s Own Personality
-           Reflect this value in behavioural activities: overt and covert
19.  Chastity
-           Put safe-guards for the preservation of chastity 
20.  Universal Brotherhood
-           Develop brotherhood-panism
21.   The Survival of the Constructive
-           Be beneficial to the humanity in terms of those affairs which are constructive and are based on permanent values and not in those affairs which are destructive and unlawful
22.  Co-operation, Corroboration
-           Co-operate one another unto righteousness alone
23.  Reflect the Attributes of Allah in Behaviour
-           Project facets of Allah in behavioural activities, overt and covert both, so far tenable within the human parameters
24.  Security
-           Provide security so that every one is dealt within the permanent values
25.  Slavery
-           No human being shall be a slave or a subject to his/her fellow beings
26.  Limitations to Human Actions
-           Follow that which is sent down to you from your Nourisher and follow not any other protector beside Him
LIST OF RELATIVE VALUES
If there is no clash or tie between the values given below and some of the permanent values listed above, these values will be incorporated in behaviour. In case of tie, only the permanent values will be strengthened even at the cost of one’s own life:

1. Life-partner’s and Offspring’s Love
2. Lust for Wealth
3. Security of Life
4. Safety of the Haven, the Hearth and the Crops
5. Contract 

CURRICULA AND TEXTBOOKS
Personality is the kernel, the core, the hub or the nucleus of the proposed Values Education which either integrates or disintegrates it. The whole model of this Values Education metaphorically draws upon it “that hard kernel of gaiety that never breaks” (Manzoor.1993). The ideological and socio-economical foundations of this model on the basis of which the curricula of all the disciplines, social or physical sciences or the professional pursuits like the Medical, Engineering, Computer or Teacher Education, would be worked out at the State level.
The ideological basis would provide the foundations for the cognitive inputs as well as all kinds of outputs of the entire social and physical sciences. The economic foundations would promote economic development as well as stability in the personality and the social foundations would provide underpinnings to be embedded in the curriculum fabric so that the students may bring these values forth through their overt and / or covert behaviour. However, the textbooks upto intermediate level classes, to begin with, would be prepared and published by the State as it may determine.
TEXTBOOKS, TEACHERS’ GUIDE BOOKS AND TEACHING KITS
The Bureaux of Curriculum and Extension Wing and Curriculum Research and Development Centres, (CRDCs), under the guiding principles of the Federal Ministry of Education would prepare textbooks and teachers’ guide books according to each grade. Each guide book would contain: (i) objectives of Values Education; (ii) detailed analysis of the inbuilt values; (iii) learning objectives; (iv) teaching and learning strategies; and (v) suggested activities.
The teaching kits, in addition to charts, flash cards, scientific and mathematical equipments, would also provide serial pictures and booklets on short stories at the primary level. For the secondary school teachers, the curriculum development agencies would provide (i) objectives; (ii) each value to be imbedded in personality fibre; (iii) teaching and learning objectives; and (iv) suggested issues and situations that could be used to relate/reflect the values.
The training kit would also be developed for the purpose of conducting in-house training programs for the teachers. This training kit material would be related to (i) roles of school administrators, and the conducive school culture, (ii) values across the curriculum, and (iii) video & audio-video cassettes and CDs on the teaching and learning of each subject taught in the school curriculum. These kits may also pertain to Virtual Real Technology in Cyberspace.
TEACHER TRAINING PROGRAMS: APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES 
The present teaching model does not include the development of the personality area of the students. Pedagogy would be designed to incorporate: (i) objectives of Values Education; (ii) detailed analysis of the values to be imbibed in the students behaviours; (iii) learning objectives; (iv) teaching and learning strategies; (v) suggested activities; and (vi) personality development. This would provide means of helping students to develop positive attitudes that are important in the enrichment of a society. Therefore, the approaches devised and strategies employed would provide students with the opportunities to see and relate issues and problems from a moral perspective.
TEACHING APPROACHES
Pre-service and in-service courses would be conducted for trainees and trained teachers. The several approaches, they would be exposed to, would include: (a) values analysis; (b) values clarification; (c) values inculcation; (d) social action; and (e) cognitive development. The rationale, application, and output(s) of each are outlined below:
The values analysis approach would facilitate students to:
-           use logical thinking and cause-effect relationship for solving character conflicts related to personal, social and political issues
-           use analytical processes in inter-relating and conceptualizing the values 
The values clarification approach would help the students to:
-           become aware of and identify their own values and those of others
-           communicate openly and honestly
-           use both national needs and emotional awareness to evaluate personal feelings, values and behaviour patterns 
The values inculcation approach would enable the students to:
-           imbibe values in the behavior in a balanced way
-           justify why these values have to be internalized and practiced
The social action approach focuses on training students to:
-           act as living models of these values
-           make judgements in accordance with the values when faced with conflicting situations or moral dilemma related to self or other’s vested interests 
The cognitive development approach would facilitate students to:
-           develop more complex reasoning patterns based on combined set of values
-           act according to the permanent and the relative values
-           make wise choices of values for reflection in their behaviour, overt or/and covert
TEACHING STRATEGIES
 Teachers would be encouraged to use a combinatorial sets of strategies to make every lesson more meaningful, effective and motivating to students. For this purpose the suggested strategies would include: (i) problem solving; (ii) discussion; (iii) project work; (iv) story telling; (v) acting; (vi) singing; (vii) tele-conferencing; (viii) VRT approach, and (ix) simulation games. At primary level, for imparting knowledge, imbibing values for shaping their behaviours, the most effective teaching strategies would be (i) story telling, (ii) acting, (iii) singing and (iv) CDs; whereas at the secondary and tertiary level, for strengthening the practice and internalization of values, for teaching and training the students to think creatively and rationally in making decisions, the most appropriate teaching strategies would be (i) group discussion, (ii) problem solving, (iii) project work; (iv) tele-conferencing; and (v) Virtual Real Technology (VRT) approach in cyberspace.
STUDENTS EVALUATION IN VALUES EDUCATION
The Values Education emphasizes on the cognitive and affective domains. In order to have an objective evaluation, fair and just of each student two things would be required: (a) school-based assessment and (b) public examinations. School-based assessment would be for primary level and would be done through observation, written work and oral tests. Observation would focus continuously on the learning and behaviour aspects of a student for a long period of time. Assessment on written work would include, marking and evaluating work done and would include daily exercises such as essays and reports and written tests. The written tests may be set in the objective and/or subjective forms. Oral tests would be carried out through interaction between the teacher and the taught and among the taught. This would be only to validate students’ behaviours evaluated through observation and feedback from the society. The same too for the higher education.
Public examinations would be for secondary and tertiary level students and would be done through tests on their knowledge of values and their projection through reasoning skills in answering questions. These questions would be set to (a) evaluate knowledge of the values; (b) evaluate understanding of the considerations leading to the values; where the students would be required to respond to the stimuli given by written answer in the spaces provided; these stimuli would be set in the form of moral situations of dilemma; short questions would be designed and answers would have to be given in the form of views and opinions and marks would be awarded on knowledge and maturity of thought; the questions would be structurally set and (c) evaluate the students’ ability to apply the gained knowledge; where students would be required to use their ability to analyze moral problems and issues posed in the questions and make appropriate decisions; where the students would not only have to give their views and opinions but also would need to reason out their responses.
COMMUNITY PROGRAM AND THE MEDIA
Community programs related to education, culture and recreation would be useful because these programs would enable the youth and adults to interact with each other while experiencing and practicing these values. These programs would be organized by government agencies such as the Ministry of Youth and Sports, the Ministry of Information and Broad Casting, Voluntary Organizations etc. The mass-media would also participate in the promotion of Value Education activities. The electronic media such as television, radio and Internet would telecast educational programs which would embed values as desired through the curriculum. The print media such as newspapers and magazines would also publicize articles based on the Values Education.
IMPLEMENTATION PROBLEMS OF VALUES EDUCATION
The major problems would fall in the areas of (a) teaching learning phase because the teachers would have to teach the same values from year to year where means and ways would have to be found to create an interesting environment and effective teaching strategy; (b) evaluation of students’ moral behaviour because it would be difficulty to know precisely what are the true thoughts and values which the students uphold internally; the consistency of the values observed over time and across situations would still not be certain; in the contradictory-and-dissension-ridden society the values taught in institutes would be contradictory to what is happening at home; and (c) controlling the types of materials produced by mass-media. The implementation of this program would depend on all groups of the population from the institutes and the community.
OPERATIONAL MECHANISM FOR STRATEGIC EDUCATIONISTS
The operational mechanism for revamping the system of Values Education would be four-pronged: (a) incorporation of the Law of Requital; (b) resurrection of the present system of education conforming to the recognition of Allah as the Rabb, the Nourisher; (c) organization for the course of self development; and (d) strategic pedagogy for content base on the empirical theory of knowledge. Strategic measures for each of the four prongs would have to be worked out to keep balance between the changing socio-economic conditions of the time and permanence of human personality.
The main points of the strategic measures for judging the end-product of this Values Education would be:

1. Students engaged in understanding and controlling the forces of nature and shaping their lives according to these permanent values. They would be judged whether they are becoming the real MOMINS and MUTTAQIS in the days to come and are becoming worthy of enjoying happiness in this world and the same in the next stage of life;
2. Those students who really achieve the conquest of nature but use their power so acquired for purposes opposed to the permanent values. They would be judged whether they are being worthy to be rewarded with success in this world for the time being but would have nothing to hope for in the future;

It is, therefore, desired to base this operational strategy: (a) on the pristine ideological pursuits rooted in the permanent values; (b) execute these pursuits with the constructive potential in accordance with the Divine Law given in the Holy Qur’an:

“Only the Tyyab Ideology sublimes to Him and the Saleh acts take to Its culmination (prescribed by) Him alone”(The Holy Qur’an 35:10). 
To judge the success of the Values Education, the end product would be to help the student (a) understand and control the forces of nature, (b) shape their lives according to the permanent values, and (c) enjoy happiness in this world and the world hereafter as MOMINS and MUTTAQEES. The following example would make this process clear:
TYPE OF VALUES AND OBJECTIVES: AN EXAMPLE
Some of the values and objectives for inculcation in behaviour are given as
under:

VALUES                                                             OBJECTIVESHuman Personality                                            -     Is aware of own potentialities
-           Makes efforts for developing own personality with a balance among its potentials, talents and traits having a choice of adequate selection
-           Accepts it as a ledger of total records making it integrative or disintegrative
-           Is self-supporting
-           Is aware to make decisions and solve problems
Justice                                                                        -    Accords  equality  to  all  the human beings
                                                                                         by virtue of its birth
-           Provides uniform opportunities for the development of human being’s potential
-           Determines the status corresponding to his/her actions
-           Works with dedication 
Justice In Court of Law                                    -     Not pleading the cause of perfidious
-           Conceals not the truth what-so-ever be the reason
-           Confounds not the truth with falsehood
-           Makes efficient time management 
The Survival of the Constructive                     -     Is beneficial to the humanity in those affairs
                                                                                 which   are  constructive   and   based   on
                                                                                 permanent values
-           Assists others who are in need
-           Takes initiatives for willingness to forgive 
Limitations to Human Actions                                   -    Follows   that  which  is sent down from the
                                                                                    Rabb, the Nourisher
-           Manifests feeling of tolerance towards others
-           Executes co-operation
-           Develops operational skills 
Render Back the Trusts                                   -     Returns the deposits and the reigns of power
                                                                                 to those who deserve
-           Is disciplined, honest and industrious
-           Accomplishes fulfillment of work goals
-           Accelerates organizational effectiveness
Respect for Humanity                                     -   Knows   that  all  human  beings are equal by
      birth   and  are   worthy    of  respect   without
     discrimination of colour, creed, cast and sex
-           Develops work habits that are healthy
-           Initiates respect for all 
Deserve for What you Strive for                  -     Gets the fruit of own struggle alone
-           Works hard to deserve
-           Puts interest towards work
-           Applies honesty and positive attitudes towards work and responsibilities
These permanent values inbuilt compassion (i.e. the feeling of tolerance towards others), self-reliance, self-supporting, diligence (i.e. self-development), co-operation (i. e. team work) etc.
Researches prove that affective skills are needed to ensure success and development of positive attitudes. Therefore, the teachers would have to be (i) equipped with necessary skills and knowledge to perform their roles effectively in inculcating values in their students; (ii) skillful in the various teaching approaches and strategies to be able to apply properly and effectively; (iii) able to resolve the students problems through their participation; (iv) competent in the knowledge of humanistic and cultural dimensions; and (v) role models to their students all the time. 
CONCLUSION
The Values Education regulates as a motive-valence for living peacefully on this biosphere on the doctrine of mutual respect; for the development of human self; for disciplining life within the boundary walls of the permanent values embodied in the Holy Qur’an, the only code of life on this earth. This would make as if the Nourisher, on the return of the human beings to Him, welcomes:


But ah; thou soul at peace!
Return unto thy Nourisher,
Content in His good pleasure.
Enter thou among My bondmen;
Enter thou My Heaven;
(The Holy Qur’an 89: 27-30)

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History of the Computer Industry in America

Only once in a lifetime will a new invention come about to touch every aspect of our lives. Such a device that changes the way we work, live, and play is a special one, indeed.  A machine that has done all this and more now exists in nearly every business in the U.S. and one out of every two households (Hall, 156).  This incredible invention is the computer.  The electronic computer has been around for over a half-century, but its ancestors have been around for 2000 years.  However, only in the last 40 years has it changed the American society.  From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, the computer has changed nearly every aspect of peoples lives for the better.
The earliest existence of the modern day computer ancestor is the abacus.  These date back to almost 2000 years ago.  It is simply a wooden rack holding parallel wire on which beads are strung.  When these beads are moved along the wire according to "programming" rules that the user must memorize, all ordinary arithmetic operations can be performed (Soma, 14).  The next innovation in computers took place in 1694 when Blaise Pascal invented the first digital calculating machine.  It could only add numbers and they had to be entered by turning dials.  It was designed to help Pascal's father who was a tax collector (Soma, 32).
In the early 1800, a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine.  It was steam powered and could store up to 1000 50-digit numbers.  Built into his machine were operations that included everything a modern general-purpose computer would need.  It was programmed by and stored data on cards with holes punched in them, appropriately called punch cards.  His inventions were failures for the most part because of the lack of precision machining techniques used at the time and the lack of demand
for such a device (Soma, 46).
After Babbage, people began to lose interest in computers.  However, between 1850 and 1900 there were great advances in mathematics and physics that began to rekindle the interest (Osborne, 45).  Many of these new advances involved complex calculations and formulas that were very time consuming for human calculation.  The first major use for a computer in the U.S. was during the 1890 census.  Two men, Herman Hollerith and James Powers, developed a new punched-card system that could automatically read information on cards without human intervention (Gulliver, 82).  Since the population of the U.S. was increasing so fast, the computer was an essential tool in tabulating the totals.
These advantages were noted by commercial industries and soon led to the development of improved punch-card business-machine systems by International Business Machines (IBM), Remington-Rand, Burroughs, and other corporations.  By modern standards the punched-card machines were slow, typically processing from 50 to 250 cards per minute, with each card holding up to 80 digits.  At the time, however, punched cards was an enormous step forwards;  they provided a means of input, output, and memory storage on a massive scale.  For more than 50 years following their first use, punched-card machines did the bulk of the world's business computing and a good portion of the computing work in science (Chposky, 73).
By the late 1930's punched-card machine techniques had become so
well established and reliable that Howard Hathaway Aiken, in
collaboration with engineers at IBM, undertook construction of a large automatic digital computer based on standard IBM electromechanical parts.  Aiken's machine, called the Harvard Mark I, handled 23-digit numbers and could perform all four arithmetic operations.  Also, it had
special built-in programs to handle logarithms and trigonometric functions.  The Mark I was controlled from prepunched paper tape.  Output was by card punch and electric typewriter.  It was slow, requiring 3 to 5 seconds for a multiplication, but it was fully automatic and could complete long computations without human intervention (Chposky, 103).
The outbreak of World War II produced a desperate need for computing capability, especially for the military.  New weapons' systems were produced which needed trajectory tables and other essential data.  In 1942, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchley, and their associates at the University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high-speed electronic computer to do the job.  This machine became known as ENIAC, for "Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator".  It could multiply two numbers at the rate of 300 products per second, by finding the value of
each product from a multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was thus about 1,000 times faster than the previous generation of computers (Dolotta, 47).
ENIAC used 18,000 standard vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 square feet of floor space, and used about 180,000 watts of electricity.  It used punched-card input and output.  The ENIAC was very difficult to program because one had to essentially re-wire it to perform whatever
task he wanted the computer to do.  It was, however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed.  ENIAC is generally accepted as the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer and was used in many applications from 1946 to 1955
(Dolotta, 50).
Mathematician John von Neumann was very interested in the ENIAC.  In 1945 he undertook a theoretical study of computation that demonstrated that a computer could have a very simple and yet be able to execute any kind of computation effectively by means of proper
programmed control without the need for any changes in hardware.  Von Neumann came up with incredible ideas for methods of building and organizing practical, fast computers.  These ideas, which came to be referred to as the stored-program technique, became fundamental for
future generations of high-speed digital computers and were universally adopted (Hall, 73).
The first wave of modern programmed electronic computers to take advantage of these improvements appeared in 1947.  This group included computers using random access memory (RAM), which is a memory designed to give almost constant access to any particular piece of information (Hall, 75).  These machines had punched-card or punched-tape input and output devices and RAMs of 1000-word capacity.  Physically, they were much more compact than ENIAC:  some were about the size of a grand piano and required 2500 small electron tubes.  This was quite an improvement over the earlier machines.  The first-generation stored-program
computers required considerable maintenance, usually attained 70% to 80% reliable operation, and were used for 8 to 12 years.  Typically, they were programmed directly in machine language, although by the mid-1950s progress had been made in several aspects of advanced programming.  This group of machines included EDVAC and UNIVAC, the first commercially available computers (Hazewindus, 102).
The UNIVAC was developed by John W. Mauchley and John Eckert, Jr. in the 1950's.  Together they had formed the Mauchley-Eckert Computer Corporation, America s first computer company in the 1940's.  During the development of the UNIVAC, they began to run short on funds and sold their company to the larger Remington-Rand Corporation.  Eventually they built a working UNIVAC computer.  It was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951 where it was used to help tabulate the U.S. population (Hazewindus, 124).
Early in the 1950s two important engineering discoveries changed the electronic computer field.  The first computers were made with vacuum tubes, but by the late 1950's computers were being made out of transistors, which were smaller, less expensive, more reliable, and more efficient (Shallis, 40).  In 1959, Robert Noyce, a physicist at the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, invented the integrated circuit, a tiny chip of silicon that contained an entire electronic circuit.  Gone was the bulky, unreliable, but fast machine; now computers began to
become more compact, more reliable and have more capacity (Shallis, 49).
These new technical discoveries rapidly found their way into new models of digital computers.  Memory storage capacities increased 800% in commercially available machines by the early 1960s and speeds increased by an equally large margin.  These machines were very
expensive to purchase or to rent and were especially expensive to operate because of the cost of hiring programmers to perform the complex operations the computers ran.  Such computers were typically found in large computer centres--operated by industry, government, and private
laboratories--staffed with many programmers and support personnel (Rogers, 77).  By 1956, 76 of IBM's large computer mainframes were in use, compared with only 46 UNIVAC's (Chposky, 125).
In the 1960s efforts to design and develop the fastest possible computers with the greatest capacity reached a turning point with the completion of the LARC machine for Livermore Radiation Laboratories by the Sperry-Rand Corporation, and the Stretch computer by IBM.  The LARC had a core memory of 98,000 words and multiplied in 10 microseconds. Stretch was provided with several ranks of memory having slower access for the ranks of greater capacity, the fastest access time being less than 1 microseconds and the total capacity in the vicinity of 100 million words (Chposky, 147).
During this time the major computer manufacturers began to offer a range of computer capabilities, as well as various computer-related equipment.  These included input means such as consoles and card feeders;  output means such as page printers, cathode-ray-tube displays,
and graphing devices;  and optional magnetic-tape and magnetic-disk file storage.  These found wide use in business for such applications as accounting, payroll, inventory control, ordering supplies, and billing.  Central processing units (CPUs) for such purposes did not need to be
very fast arithmetically and were primarily used to access large amounts of records on file.  The greatest number of computer systems were delivered for the larger applications, such as in hospitals for keeping track of patient records, medications, and treatments given. They were
also used in automated library systems and in database systems such as the Chemical Abstracts system, where computer records now on file cover nearly all known chemical compounds (Rogers, 98).
The trend during the 1970s was, to some extent, away from extremely powerful, centralized computational centres and toward a broader range of applications for less-costly computer systems.  Most continuous-process manufacturing, such as petroleum refining and electrical-power distribution systems, began using computers of relatively modest capability for controlling and regulating their activities.  In the 1960s the programming of applications problems was an obstacle to the self-sufficiency of moderate-sized on-site computer
installations, but great advances in applications programming languages removed these obstacles.  Applications languages became available for controlling a great range of manufacturing processes, for computer operation of machine tools, and for many other tasks (Osborne, 146).  In 1971 Marcian E. Hoff, Jr., an engineer at the Intel Corporation,
invented the microprocessor and another stage in the development of the computer began (Shallis, 121).
A new revolution in computer hardware was now well under way, involving miniaturization of computer-logic circuitry and of component manufacture by what are called large-scale integration techniques.  In the 1950s it was realized that "scaling down" the size of electronic
digital computer circuits and parts would increase speed and efficiency and improve performance.  However, at that time the manufacturing methods were not good enough to accomplish such a task.  About 1960 photo printing of conductive circuit boards to eliminate wiring became highly developed. Then it became possible to build resistors and capacitors into the circuitry by photographic means (Rogers, 142).  In the 1970s entire assemblies, such as adders, shifting registers, and counters, became available on tiny chips of silicon. In the 1980s very large scale integration (VLSI), in which hundreds of thousands of transistors are placed on a single chip, became increasingly common.  Many companies, some new to the computer field, introduced in the 1970s programmable minicomputers supplied with software packages.  The
size-reduction trend continued with the introduction of personal computers, which are programmable machines small enough and inexpensive enough to be purchased and used by individuals (Rogers, 153).
One of the first of such machines was introduced in January 1975.  Popular Electronics magazine provided plans that would allow any electronics wizard to build his own small, programmable computer for about $380 (Rose, 32).  The computer was called the Altair 8800.  Its programming involved pushing buttons and flipping switches on the front
of the box.  It didn't include a monitor or keyboard, and its applications were very limited (Jacobs, 53).  Even though, many orders came in for it and several famous owners of computer and software manufacturing companies got their start in computing through the Altair.
For example, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, built a much cheaper, yet more productive version of the Altair and turned their hobby into a business (Fluegelman, 16).
After the introduction of the Altair 8800, the personal computer industry became a fierce battleground of competition.  IBM had been the computer industry standard for well over a half-century.  They held their position as the standard when they introduced their first personal
computer, the IBM Model 60 in 1975 (Chposky, 156).  However, the newly formed Apple Computer company was releasing its own personal computer, the Apple II (The Apple I was the first computer designed by Jobs and Wozniak in Wozniak s garage, which was not produced on a wide scale).  Software was needed to run the computers as well.  Microsoft developed a
Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) for the IBM computer while Apple developed its own software system (Rose, 37).  Because Microsoft had now set the software standard for IBMs, every software manufacturer had to make their software compatible with Microsoft's.  This would lead to huge profits for Microsoft (Cringley, 163).
The main goal of the computer manufacturers was to make the computer as affordable as possible while increasing speed, reliability, and capacity.  Nearly every computer manufacturer accomplished this and computers popped up everywhere.  Computers were in businesses keeping track of inventories.  Computers were in colleges aiding students in research.  Computers were in laboratories making complex calculations at high speeds for scientists and physicists.  The computer had made its mark everywhere in society and built up a huge industry (Cringley, 174).
The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology.  The speed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in the coming years.  As manufacturing techniques are further perfected the prices of computer systems are expected to steadily fall.
However, since the microprocessor technology will be increasing, it's higher costs will offset the drop in price of older processors. In other words, the price of a new computer will stay about the same from year to year, but technology will steadily increase (Zachary, 42)
Since the end of World War II, the computer industry has grown from a standing start into one of the biggest and most profitable industries in the United States.  It now comprises thousands of companies, making everything from multi-million dollar high-speed
supercomputers to printout paper and floppy disks.  It employs millions of people and generates tens of billions of dollars in sales each year (Malone, 192).  Surely, the computer has impacted every aspect of people's lives.  It has affected the way people work and play.  It has
made everyone s life easier by doing difficult work for people.  The computer truly is one of the most incredible inventions in history.

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History of computer

The volume and use of computers in the world are so great, they have become difficult to ignore anymore. Computers appear to us in so many ways that many times, we fail to see them as they actually are. People associated with a computer when they purchased their morning coffee at the vending machine. As they drove themselves to work, the traffic lights that so often hampered us are controlled by computers in an attempt to speed the journey. Accept it or not, the computer has invaded our life.
The origins and roots of computers started out as many other inventions and technologies have in the past. They evolved from a relatively simple idea or plan designed to help perform functions easier and quicker. The first basic type of computers were designed to do just that; compute!. They performed basic math functions such as multiplication and division and displayed the results in a variety of methods. Some computers displayed results in a binary representation of electronic lamps. Binary denotes using only ones and zeros thus, lit lamps represented ones and unlit lamps represented zeros. The irony of this is that people needed to perform another mathematical function to translate binary to decimal to make it readable to the user.
One of the first computers was called ENIAC. It was a huge, monstrous size nearly that of a standard railroad car. It contained electronic tubes, heavy gauge wiring, angle-iron, and knife switches just to name a few of the components. It has become difficult to believe that computers have evolved into suitcase sized micro-computers of the 1990's.
Computers eventually evolved into less archaic looking devices near the end of the 1960's. Their size had been reduced to that of a small automobile and they were processing segments of information at faster rates than older models. Most computers at this time were termed "mainframes" due to the fact that many computers were linked together to perform a given function. The primary user of these types of computers were military agencies and large corporations such as Bell, AT&T, General Electric, and Boeing. Organizations such as these had the funds to afford such technologies. However, operation of these computers required extensive intelligence and manpower resources. The average person could not have fathomed trying to operate and use these million dollar processors.
The United States was attributed the title of pioneering the computer. It was not until the early 1970's that nations such as Japan and the United Kingdom started utilizing technology of their own for the development of the computer. This resulted in newer components and smaller sized computers. The use and operation of computers had developed into a form that people of average intelligence could handle and manipulate without to much ado. When the economies of other nations started to compete with the United States, the computer industry expanded at a great rate. Prices dropped dramatically and computers became more affordable to the average household.  Like the invention of the wheel, the computer is here to stay.
The operation and use of computers in our present era of the 1990's has become so easy and simple that perhaps we may have taken too much for granted. Almost everything of use in society requires some form of training or education. Many people say that the predecessor to the computer was the typewriter. The typewriter definitely required training and experience in order to operate it at a usable and efficient level. Children are being taught basic computer skills in the classroom in order to prepare them for the future evolution of the computer age.
The history of computers started out about 2000 years ago, at the birth of the abacus, a wooden rack holding two horizontal wires with beads strung on them. When these beads are moved around, according to programming rules memorized by the user, all regular arithmetic problems can be done. Another important invention around the same time was the Astrolabe, used for navigation.
Blaise Pascal is usually credited for building the first digital computer in 1642. It added numbers entered with dials and was made to help his father, a tax collector.  In 1671, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented a computer that was built in 1694. It could add, and, after changing some things around, multiply.  Leibnitz invented a special stopped gear mechanism for introducing the addend digits, and this is still being used.
The prototypes made by Pascal and Leibnitz were not used in many places, and considered weird until a little more than a century later, when Thomas of Colmar (A.K.A. Charles Xavier Thomas) created the first successful mechanical calculator that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. A lot of improved desktop calculators by many inventors followed, so that by about 1890, the range of improvements included: Accumulation of partial results, storage and automatic reentry of past results (A memory function), and printing of the results. Each of these required manual installation. These improvements were mainly made for commercial users, and not for the needs of science.
While Thomas of Colmar was developing the desktop calculator, a series of very interesting developments in computers was started in Cambridge, England, by Charles Babbage (of which the computer store "Babbages" is named), a mathematics professor. In 1812, Babbage realized that many long calculations, especially those needed to make mathematical tables, were really a series of predictable actions that were constantly repeated. From this he suspected that it should be possible to do these automatically. He began to design an automatic mechanical calculating machine, which he called a difference engine. By 1822, he had a working model to demonstrate. Financial help from the British Government was attained and Babbage started  fabrication of a difference engine in 1823. It was intended to be steam powered and fully automatic, including the printing of the resulting tables, and commanded by a fixed instruction program.      The difference engine, although having limited adaptability and applicability, was really a great advance.  Babbage continued to work on it for the next 10 years, but in 1833 he lost interest because he thought he had a better idea; the construction of what would now be called a general purpose, fully program-controlled, automatic mechanical digital computer. Babbage called this idea an Analytical Engine. The ideas of this design showed a lot of foresight, although this couldn't be appreciated until a full century later.
The plans for this engine required an identical decimal computer operating on numbers of 50 decimal digits (or words) and having a storage capacity (memory) of 1,000 such digits. The built-in operations were supposed to include everything that a modern general - purpose computer would need, even the all important Conditional Control Transfer Capability that would allow commands to be executed in any order, not just the order in which they were programmed.
As people can see, it took quite a large amount of intelligence and fortitude to come to the 1990's style and use of computers. People have assumed that computers are a natural development in society and take them for granted. Just as people have learned to drive an automobile, it also takes skill and learning to utilize a computer.
Computers in society have become difficult to understand. Exactly  what they consisted of and what actions they performed were highly dependent upon the type of computer. To say a person had a typical computer doesn't necessarily narrow down just what the capabilities of that computer was. Computer styles and types covered so many different functions and actions, that it was difficult to name them all. The original computers of the 1940's were easy to define their purpose when they were first invented. They primarily performed mathematical functions many times faster than any person could have calculated. However, the evolution of the computer had created many styles and types that were greatly dependent on a well defined purpose.
The computers of the 1990's roughly fell into three groups consisting of mainframes, networking units, and personal computers. Mainframe computers were extremely large sized modules and had the capabilities of processing and storing massive amounts of data in the form of numbers and words. Mainframes were the first types of computers developed in the 1940's. Users of these types of computers ranged from banking firms, large corporations and government agencies. They usually were very expensive in cost but designed to last at least five to ten years. They also required well educated and experienced manpower to be operated and maintained. Larry Wulforst, in his book Breakthrough to the Computer Age, describes the old mainframes of the 1940's compared to those of the 1990's by speculating, "...the contrast to the sound of the sputtering motor powering the first flights of the Wright Brothers at Kitty Hawk and the roar of the mighty engines on a Cape Canaveral launching pad" (126).
Networking computers derived from the idea of bettering communications. They were medium sized computers specifically designed to link and communicate with other computers. The United States government initially designed and utilized these type of computers in the 1960's in order to better the national response to nuclear threats and attacks. The Internet developed as a direct result of this communication system. In the 1990's, there were literally thousands of these communication computers scattered all over the world and they served as the communication traffic managers for the entire Internet. One source stated it best concerning the volume of Internet computers by revealing, "... the number of hosts on the Internet began an explosive growth. By 1988 there were over 50,000 hosts. A year later, there were three times that many" (Campbell-Kelly and Aspray 297).
The personal computers that are in large abundance in the 1990's are actually very simple machines. Their basic purpose is to provide a usable platform for a person to perform given tasks easier and faster. They perform word processing, spread sheet functions and person to person communications just to name a few. They are also a great form of enjoyment as many games have been developed to play on these types of computers. These computers are the most numerous types in the world due to there relatively small cost and size.
The internal workings and mechanics of personal computers primarily consisted of a central processing unit, a keyboard, a video monitor and possibly a printer unit. The central processing unit is the heart and brains of the system.  The functions of the central processing unit were based on a unit called the Von Neumann computer designed in 1952. As stated in the book The Dream Machine, the Von Neumann computer consisted of an input, memory, control, arithmetic unit and output as basic processes of a central processing unit. It has become the basic design and fundamental basis for the development of most computers.

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Carnegie Digital Computers Discusses Why Consumers Love the iPad Read more: http://www.articlesbase.com/information-technology-articles/carnegie-digital-computers-discusses-why-consumers-love-the-ipad-2443546.html#ixzz1AhZvknly Under Creative Commons License: Attribution

Though the Apple iPad has been out for a little over a month now, it is still nearly impossible for customers to find stores that have them in stock. Carnegie Digital Computers knows exactly why these devices are selling so well. Besides the iPad's sleek design and visual appeal, Carnegie Digital Computers explains why certain features are drawing customers in.
The iPad offers a lot of choice as far as meeting consumer needs, says Carnegie Digital Computers. The tablet computer is available in both a Wi-Fi only version, as well as a Wi-Fi plus 3G compatible version. The 3G compatible version, explains Carnegie Digital Computers, would allow users to access the web anywhere—even where wireless Internet access is not available. Carnegie Digital Computers continues that the iPad is also available with 16, 32, or 64 GB memory. This lets customers pick the iPad that is perfect for them without paying for unnecessary extras.
Another favorite feature of the new iPad is the web and e-mail experience it offers, says Carnegie Digital Computers. For example, when viewing a webpage, users can view it in both landscape and portrait. Carnegie Digital Computers explains that customers love that when they rotate the iPad, the page automatically rotates too and expands to fill the screen. Also, the multi-touch features of the screen are astounding, says Carnegie Digital Computers. Users are able to double tap the screen to enlarge particular portions of websites. Carnegie Digital Computers says that new iPad owners constantly comment on its ease of use and intuitiveness.
The iPad also changes the way users can view photos and video. Carnegie Digital Computers explains that the iPad display is brilliant and vibrant, while high-definition videos show up bolder than ever. According to Carnegie Digital Computers, YouTube is already a working component of the iPad. The iPad also supports iPod and iBook functions. Come in to Carnegie Digital Computers and try out the new iPad—once you experience it, you will definitely want one.

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Computer Knowledge Shoroom

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Some tips on using Microsoft Project

Working with Microsoft Project may seem like a daunting task due to its powerful features. If you want to manage your project schedules successfully until completion, these are some hints and tips that you can use.

* First, you want to make sure that you configure the project schedule from the very beginning. Creating a template for your project schedule is recommended, because you can then re-use it in the future.
* It is essential to learn how to create a work breakdown structure (WBS) in Microsoft Project – especially when creating your project schedule. The WBS allows you to map out the project plan, where you can fill in with more details.
* When creating your schedule, don't forget to take into account the number of holidays. Implementing such calendar strategies will make for a more realistic timeline, as it already includes resource holidays.
* One of the best tips to ensure that you can deliver your project on time is by using the functions that gives you the ability to level resources quickly. Obviously, over-allocated resources mayaffect the timeline of your project schedule.
* Get a clearer look of what you manage by using the custom fields and graphic indicators. This is essential as they will warn you when the schedule is changing.
* Using the baseline functions and then adding them into your reporting allow you to measurejust how well the plan went. Adjustment for future projects is then possible.
* Communicate the status of your project on a timely basis by creating dashboards and views formanagement report.

It is understandable if you are having difficulties implementing the hints and tips above, as they may require some specific knowledge on Microsoft Project. If you want to manage your project successfully using Microsoft Project, consider equipping your employees, and even yourself, with some advanced knowledge of MS Project.

Understand that when you build and plan a project schedule, it is inevitable for change to occur. Learning of how to deal with it is the key to a successful project. The MS Project training gives you the skills and know-how of how to effectively and efficiently create a project from scratch all the way to its completion.

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